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Wait-Time
The concept of "wait-time" as an instructional
variable was invented by Mary Budd Rowe (1972).
The "wait-time" periods she
found--periods of silence that followed teacher questions and students' completed
responses--rarely lasted more than 1.5 seconds in typical classrooms. She discovered,
however, that when these periods of silence lasted at least 3 seconds, many positive
things happened to students' and teachers' behaviors and attitudes. To attain
these benefits, teachers were urged to "wait" in silence for 3 or more seconds
after their questions, and after students completed their responses
(Casteel
and Stahl, 1973; Rowe 1972; Stahl 1990; Tobin 1987).
For example, when students
are given 3 or more seconds of undisturbed "wait-time," there are certain positive
outcomes:
* The length and correctness of their responses increase.
*
The number of their "I don't know" and no answer responses decreases.
* The
number of volunteered, appropriate answers by larger numbers of students greatly
increases.
* The scores of students on academic achievement tests tend to
increase. When teachers wait patiently in silence for 3 or more seconds at appropriate
places, positive changes in their own teacher behaviors also occur:
* Their
questioning strategies tend to be more varied and flexible.
* They decrease
the quantity and increase the quality and variety of their questions. *
They ask additional questions that require more complex information processing
and higher-level thinking on the part of students.
Recently, Stahl (1985)
constructed the concept of "think-time," defined as a distinct period of uninterrupted
silence by the teacher and all students so that they both can complete appropriate
information processing tasks, feelings, oral responses, and actions.
The
label "think-time" is preferred over "wait-time" because of three reasons (Stahl
1990):
* It names the primary academic purpose and activity of this period
of silence--to allow students and the teacher to complete on-task thinking.
* There are numerous places where periods of silence are as important as those
"wait-time periods" reported in the research literature.
* There is at least
one exception, labeled "impact pause-time," that allows for periods of less than
3 seconds of uninterrupted silence. The convention is to use 3 seconds as the
minimum time period because this time length represents a significant break-through
(or threshold) point: after at least 3 seconds, a significant number of very positive
things happen to students and teachers. The concern here is not that 2.9 seconds
is bad, while 3 seconds is good, and 5.3 seconds of silence is even better.
The concern is to provide the period of time that will most effectively assist
nearly every student to complete the cognitive tasks needed in the particular
situation. The teacher's job is to manage and guide what occurs prior to and immediately
following each period of silence so that the processing that needs to occur is
completed.
EIGHT CATEGORIES OF PERIODS OF SILENCE
The eight
categories are named either according to the place they occur or by the primary
function they perform during conversations and discussions. These categories are
subsumed by the overarching concept of think-time. (1) Post-Teacher Question
Wait-Time.
The typical teacher pauses, on the average, between 0.7 and
1.4 seconds after his/her questions before continuing to talk or permitting a
student to respond. When teachers perceive a student as being slow or unable to
answer, this period of time is frequently less than .7 seconds. Post-teacher question
wait-time occurs when a period of 3 or more seconds of uninterrupted silence follows
a teacher's question, so that students have sufficient uninterrupted time to first
consider and then respond to the query. To be most effective, this period of silence
should follow a clear, well-structured question with the cues students need to
construct adequate answers. Conversely, extended periods of silence following
imprecise questions tend to increase the confusion, heighten the frustration,
and lead to no response at all.
(2) Within-Student's Response Pause-Time.
Within-student's response pause-time occurs as a student pauses or hesitates
during a previously started response or explanation for up to or more than 3 seconds
of uninterrupted silence, before continuing his/her answer. By definition, no
one except the student making the initial statement can interrupt this period
of silence. The student may or may not need or take the full 3 seconds, or he/she
may need more than 3 seconds; it is up to the student to make this decision. Having
an opportunity for sufficient time to finish their previously started answers
is an uncommon occurrence for students. The widespread practice is for teachers
to interrupt or cut students off from completing their responses, especially when
the pauses are beyond .5 seconds. Students often follow these periods of silence
by volunteering, without teacher prompts, information that is usually sought by
the teacher.
(3) Post-Student's Response Wait-Time.
This 3 or more
seconds of uninterrupted silence occurs after a student has completed a response
and while other students are considering volunteering their reactions, comments,
or answers. This period allows other students time to think about what has been
said and to decide whether they want to say something of their own. If students
are to interact with one another during academic discussions, they must be given
the time needed to consider one another's responses so that they can have dialogue
among themselves.
(4) Student Pause-Time.
Student pause-time occurs
when students pause or hesitate during a self-initiated question, comment, or
statement for 3 or more seconds of uninterrupted silence before finishing their
self-initiated statements. By definition, no one except the student making the
initial statement can interrupt this period of silence. The student may or may
not need or take the full 3 seconds or may need more than 3 seconds. It is up
to the student to make this decision.
(5) Teacher Pause-Time.
Teacher pause-time, which occurs at a variety of places during a class period,
is characterized by a 3 or more second period of uninterrupted silence that teachers
deliberately take to consider what just took place, what the present situation
is, and what their next statements or behaviors could and should be. One example
of when the 3 seconds or longer of reflective thought would be beneficial for
the teacher--and eventually students--after a student has asked a question that
requires more than an immediate, short recall answer. Other examples are when
students have asked for further clarifications, clearer explanations, or better
examples than those already provided.
(6) Within-Teacher Presentation
Pause-Time.
Within-teacher presentation pause-time occurs during lecture
presentations or other extended information input periods, when teachers deliberately
stop the flow of information and give students 3 or more seconds of uninterrupted
silence to process the just-presented information. These pauses allow students
time to consolidate their thinking, with no request of them to follow with a public
response. In effect, this period of silence provides students uninterrupted time
to momentarily consider the information of the teacher's presentation in smaller,
"bite-sized" chunks, rather than all at once.
(7) Student Task-Completion
Work-Time.
Student task-completion work-time occurs when a period of
3-5 seconds; several (e.g. 15, 20, 30, or 90) seconds; or 2 or more minutes of
uninterrupted silence is provided for students to remain on-task. This period
allows students to complete a short or lengthy academic task that demands their
undivided attention. Each period of uninterrupted silence should be appropriate
to the length of time students need to complete the particular task.
(8)
Impact Pause-Time.
Impact pause-time occurs when the most dramatic way
to focus attention at a given time is to provide a period of uninterrupted silence.
Impact pause-time may continue for less than 3 seconds or far longer periods,
up through several minutes, depending upon the time needed for targeted cognitive
or affective impacts. One example of a desired result is creation of a particular
mood or affective environment, such as when sudden silence may generate a feeling
or mood of anticipation, expectation, drama, suspense, or uncertainty. Another
example is providing time for students to consider and internally respond to a
rhetorical question before continuing with additional information or activity.
SKILLFUL USE OF THINK-TIME
The 3 second period of uninterrupted
silence is a minimal amount of time unless the teacher has sound reasons to reduce
this time. There are few instructionally sound reasons for not allowing at least
3 seconds of silence. The teacher should deliberately and consistently wait in
silence for 3-5 seconds or longer at particular times, described above. The skillful
use of think-time contributes significantly to improved teaching and learning
in the classroom.
Think Time
"Think time"
is a short time period, ten seconds, after a question has been asked but
before the student answers.
It gives the student time to think, then
to process and formulate an appropiate response.
Think time helps to level
the playing field in situations where the same students seem to monopolize answering.
Consider:
Direct a question at a student but add, "I want you to think
about your answer for 10 seconds before anwering".
Count in your head, one
thousand one, one thousand two until ten. It will seem like an eternity - hang
in there - stay calm. Some students will attempt to answer before the 10 seconds
is up - don't let them.
Direct a question at the whole class but add, "I don't
want anyone to raise their hand for 10 seconds".
Time them. If students are
particularly enthusiastic or squirmy, have them sit on their hands.
Social
Studies Activities
Apply a Rule:
Given
population data that illustrates the principle that the standard of living decreases
if population increases without corresponding increase in production, the student
could be asked to analyze the data to tell and tell how he is able to determine
what effects changing population will have upon the standard of living.
Classify:
Given photographs of various people and definitions of racial classes,
the student could be asked to classify the photographs according to the races
of the people portrayed.
Construct:
Given appropriate materials,
the student could be asked to construct a model of a city water system.
Define:
Given a filmed or taped situation in which several forms of communication
are portrayed, the student could be asked to define several categories of communication.
His response could include definitions for verbal, non-verbal, pictorial, visual,
auditory, or any of several other classes or categories of communication.
Demonstrate:
The student could be asked to demonstrate the use of calipers to determine
the measurements for obtaining cephalic indices. Or he could be asked to demonstrate
use of a compass to determine direction.
Describe:
The student
could be asked to describe the culture of a particular Indian tribe.
Diagram:
The student could be asked to diagram the steps involved in the passage
of a bill though the legislature.
Distinguish:
Given the names
of ancient Greek and Roman gods paired according to function, the student could
be asked to distinguish between them.
Estimate:
Given the day of
the year and the latitude, the student could be asked to estimate the length of
daylight at a particular place. Identify:
Given the name of one of
the U.S. presidents, and photographs of several, the student could be asked to
identify the picture of the one which was named.
Interpret:
Given
a bar graph that shows production of steel in the U.S. during the last fifty years,
the student could be asked to interpret the graph. His response could include
references to times of production increases or decreases, total amount of decreases
or increases, and differences in production between the years.
Label:
The
student could be given an outline map of a country and be asked to label the major
cities and rivers.
Locate:
The student could be asked to locate,
in time, the first battle of the American Revolution.
Measure:
Given
a string and a globe with a scale of miles, the student could be asked to measure
the scaled distance between any two given points.
Name:
The student
could be asked to name the factors that contribute to natural population increases.
Order:
Given the names of the declared wars in which the U.S. has
engaged, the student could be asked to order them according to the time of occurrence.
Predict:
The student could be asked to predict the type of economy
that could be supported in described geographic regions.
Solve:
Given
tables of prices and costs, the student could be asked to solve problems related
to the law of diminishing returns.
State a Rule:
In response to
the question: "What controlled the inheritance of family property in the European
Middle Ages?" the student would respond with a statement that indicated that property
was inherited by the eldest son.
Another
Lesson Plan Content Standards:
Reading:
1.0
Word Analysis and Vocabulary
Concepts about Print 1.1, 1.2,
1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6
Phonemic Awareness 1.7, 1.9, 1.13
Decoding and Word
Recognition 1.15, 1.18 2.0
Reading Comprehension
Uses Strategies to Comprehend
Text 2.1, 2.2, 2.4, 2.5
Retells a Story 2.4
Locates Title, Table of Contents,
Author, Illustrator 2.1 3.0
Literary Response and Analysis
Distinguishes
between Fantasy and Reality in text 3.1
Identifies important events, settings,
and characters 3.3
Writing: 1.0
Writing Strategies
Writes using
letters and phonetic spelling words 1.1, 1.2, 1.3
Forms letters correctly
1.4 1.0
Written and Oral English Language Conventions
Spelling
1.2
Speaks in complete Sentences 1.1 1.0
Listening/ Speaking Strategies
and Applications
Follows Oral Directions 1.1
Shares Information and
Ideas 1.2, 2.2
Instructional Objective:
Instruction in Phonemic
Awareness
Instruction in Literature Elements
Students will be given opportunity
to respond to Literature / Books Instructional Design:
Instruction
in whole group
Student response and interaction in small groups that:
Reinforce
oral skills in communicating with other students
Reinforce skills as illustrators
in the Art Center
Reinforce writing skills at the Writing Center
Instructional
Delivery:
Whole Class Instruction
Phonemic Awareness
Letter
C
Blending sounds
Syllables
Literature Elements
Title/Author/Illustrator
Characters in the story
Prediction
Small Groups
Students
will share personal response to books with a partner or group.
Students will
work in Centers Writing / Art / Library / Listening Assessment:
Student
response using a variety of techniques:
thumbs up / down, choral, individual
Students will be given the opportunity to orally share with partners and in
small groups.
Students will be given the opportunity to write in the Writing
Center. Students will be given the opportunity to illustrate in the Art Center.
Universal Access:
Students with Learning Disabilities and those
who are second language learners will receive additional instruction and support
with the teacher, the overlap teacher, and/or the instructional aide. Advanced
learners will be encouraged to try to write independently using their knowledge
to creatively spell their words. Instructional
Materials:
Open
Court Manual
Open Court Big Books
Alphabet cards
Library books
Word
and sentence cards
Art materials
Remember....
If YOU
don't
know what you are teaching,
the students won't know what they are to learn.
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